The Air That I Breathe
There is a unique feeling to experience a place or landscape that suggests the ideas of aloneness, forgotten, deterioration. I discovered this intrigue in a place of the past, still existing in the present, abandoned as if the inhabitants and workers had just failed to turn up one day and never returned. Denniston is a coal mining area on top of a plateau on the West Coast and is famous for the Denniston Incline.[1] I stayed for a week or so in one of a handful of remaining houses and was continually drawn to the left-overs of the mining activity that had occurred there. Mounds of rusting steel cables lay in heaps extending apparently kilometres along a cutting in the side of the hill. Rotting timber bridges spanned small creeks, still carrying rusting railway lines that ran out of sight around curves in the hillside further up. Pieces of metal, corroding sheet steel, cast housings, toothed gears, partially protruding out of the ground, suggested previous events but did not clarify their purpose. Exploration of the area left me with a profound awareness of the past and an intrigue and respect for the men who had cut into the ground and constructed these large artefacts which in part still existed, deteriorated but strangely attractive. The artefacts had the sense they were gradually fading, becoming overgrown and eroded by the weather and disappearing back into the ground. There was a distinct perception of sitting between desolation and isolation. This was an experience where I could touch this past and imagine the future; it provides me an understanding of why I enjoy the materials it was made from and why I like to work with them now.
Steel; a seemingly humble material, plentiful, taken for granted. Yet without this material, we as a race would not have the capabilities, knowledge or technological resources that exist today. This essay will explore aspects of this material through its history, production and importantly the enabling effect it has had on our civilisation and the potential impact on our collective future. Humankind’s ingenuity has flourished since the industrial revolution, closely matched by a middle class society that continues to expand today. The consumption of this group has created a global predicament which affects the very air that we breathe. As a result, we face the unknown; we do not know exactly what climate change will bring or what it will mean to us individually or collectively.
There is no intention within this discourse to either prove or argue a position nor discuss art or philosophy. My exploration starts with a material that holds my theoretical and practical interest, which in turn forms the basis of my practice.
Steel: The Enabler
A predictive medium; steel can be cut, drilled, rolled and welded. It can be folded, bent, stretched, and stamped. Black steel, bright steel, stainless steel and even rusty steel[2]. The various properties of this superbly enabling material allow engineers to determine precisely what load it will take before distorting, how much it will expand on a hot day and which alloy to use in a difficult environment. Today’s greatest achievements in architecture, transportation and engineering typically rely on the properties and use of steel. Today, with few exceptions, everything man-made involves the use of steel at some stage of its manufacture. The significance is that it is interwoven with our society and no other affordable material can replace it. My research over the past year has focussed on steel and through this I discovered aspects of the production of the material which are intriguing historically but concerning environmentally. In the long term, society may look back and redefine what was affordable.
Before the industrial revolution, iron[3] was smelted using charcoal[4]. Such was the need for iron that many English forests were denuded before the discovery that coke[5] could be used instead. This is said to be one of the greatest discoveries during the industrial revolution and it saved the remaining forests. This logically increased the need for coal and consequently increased mining to supply iron and steel makers as well as to fuel steam engines and furnaces. Activity was interrelated, Watts steam engine driving pumps so that coal mines could go deeper. This was a formative time in our history and its raw materials; coal and iron ore not only enabled the beginning of technology as we know it but formed the “origins of contemporary civilisation” (Kounellis) p237. The other ‘raw material’ could be considered the human desire to tinker, to invent, to find a solution for a need. As Jared Diamond puts it “Invention is the mother of necessity (242).” These revolutionising ingredients gradually formed the basis of a new level of industrialisation for which this period of history is known for.
The resultant commercial activity gave rise to an enlarging, newly wealthy population. Their display of prosperity in the late 1700s was responsible for consumption of new ideas, fashions, fabrics, commodities, art and design (Raizman) p29. This group, a newly affluent middle class, imitated the aristocracy with displays of wealth to demonstrate their personal worth and social status. This behaviour is well described by Maslow’s, The Hierarchy of Needs (Cherry), and resulted in consumption beyond basic needs. The beginning of middle class consumption is significant because of the degree in which this group spreads across the world.
From Europe, it is logical that this phenomenon spread to the USA and that importers competed with a developing local industry following settlement of the new land. Local manufacturers, initially copied European methods, then gradually developed their own philosophy of manufacturing as it became more industrialised. This became known as The American System, (Meikle) p22 a phrase used by a group of visiting British engineers referring to new forms of production and consumption that they observed in mid 19th century USA. Pioneers had developed into wealth displaying middle class consumers. Manufacturers in turn sought ways to produce goods more cost effectively, maximising their own profit and being more competitive in a growing market. Innovation led to the idea of “rapid progress” such that products would be out of date due to changes in technology and fashionability and thus were not necessarily built to last (Meikle)p26. Built in redundancy was a pragmatic approach to rapidly changing technology as it is in the computer industry today.
Consumption was the driving force that led industrialists to focus on their ability to make items at less cost, faster and in greater volumes. The idea of interchangeable components was an important development leading towards the advent of mass production. Initially this was a requirement of the military who wanted firearms to be manufactured so that battlefield repairs could be effected. This aim was achieved in 1824 with the delivery of 1,000 breech loading rifles (with interchangeable parts) to the US government. (Meikle) p23
Industrialisation had already led to a division of labour. Semi-skilled or non-specialised labour could be used for assembly line processes and, as Marx suggested, this led to alienation within the workforce. (Engels) The scientific management theories of Frederick Taylor[6], while acknowledging the differences of white collar and blue collar workers, failed to consider their human needs. (Willmont & Knights) Henry Ford’s name is inevitably linked to the term “production line” but his management theories tended towards workers not being paid to think despite being paid a living wage (Willmont & Knights) p385. The adoption of mass production by industrialists was a pivotal point in meeting the demand of consumers. This was achieved through the employment of unskilled workers, trained specifically to carry out a single activity on a production line.
Steel Production
Steel is produced by reducing the carbon content of pig iron by the injection of oxygen in a very high temperature furnace. This creates a tougher material (than iron) that can be alloyed with the addition of other elements to modify its properties.[7] The entire process, from iron ore to refined steel, produces approximately 1.9 tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) per tonne of steel. Carbon atoms provided by coke, combine with oxygen atoms contained in the ore[8]. This produces iron metal (pig iron) and CO2. This is a very simplified description of the process that occurs in a modern blast furnace. The addition of oxygen at the steel production stage produces further CO2 as the carbon content in the molten product is reduced. Further CO2 is produced by coal fired power stations which in most countries, supply electrical energy to melt the steel.
Steel production is closely tied to the wealth of a county’s population. This is reflected by projections indicating a rise in the use of steel by China and India during the next twenty years. In 2009 China imported two thirds of the world’s total iron ore exports and produced 60% of world’s pig iron (John Jorgenson). Steel is a major component in many consumer products from cars to washing machines, stoves and refrigerators. These goods are visible status symbols of consumerism in middle class society. China has a population in excess of 1.3 billion, about 20% of the world’s population (Rosenberg). China’s population, while not growing rapidly in numbers, is growing in wealth and therefore in consumption (Dianna Farrell, Ulrich Gersch, Elizabeth Stephenson). India’s population is set to top 1.5 billion by 2040 with a middle class population growing by a factor of five to reach over 40% (Eric Beinhocker, Diana Farrell, Adil Zainulbhai).
“The middle class presupposes a certain level of consumption and a certain pattern of behavior, a particular psychology, and a particular set of values” (Vesnovskaya).
Middle class consumption – consumerism - has a leveraging effect, a multiplying effect of actual population numbers (Diamond, Collapse) p360. Significantly it is this affluent group who are growing in numbers in highly populated developing countries.
Care of the environment by industry in these countries is possibly better than that of the western world at a similar stage of their economic development[9] but it is the sheer number of affluent consumers and the even more significantly the use of steel by industry and construction in China and India that negates acknowledgement of ‘care’. Industry and construction together typically use three times the amount of steel than the automotive and appliance sectors combined. The importance of a humble raw material, iron ore, has risen in significance; “Iron ore may be more integral to the global economy than any other commodity, except perhaps oil” (LaFemina). “The supply of iron ore is critical to the economies of all industrialised nations” (John Jorgenson)
Emitters
The principal focus of this essay began with steel, shifted to the middle classes and their inherent propensity towards consumerism and now considers CO2 emissions and the resultant effects. It needs to be noted that the CO2 produced by the combustion of fossil fuels for transportation, electrical generation, heating and domestic use is many times that for the production of steel. It was somewhere in the order of 100 times that of steel production in the USA during 2006 (Human-Related Sources and Sinks of Carbon Dioxide). In 2008, China was the world’s largest emitter of CO2 with 1.92 billion tonnes, or 1.43 tonnes per capita and showed the fastest increase in recent time (Boden). This growth would not be attributed just to increased per capita income but the degree to which China’s economy has grown from export related industry to domestically based construction and development.
Rain Forest
Rain forests sequester carbon in their cellular structure by photosynthesis; removing CO2 from the atmosphere and emitting oxygen. The removal of forests not only releases sequestered carbon back to the atmosphere from burning or decomposition but as the cleared land is used for the production of food for populations, there is a net loss to both carbon sequestration and oxygen generation. (Climate Change - Greenhouse Gas Emissions) The crops planted do not make up for the trees removed.
CO2 is not the only greenhouse gas. Water vapour, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone are the other principal greenhouse gases. There are a number of man-made gases that more effectively trap heat than CO2 and are therefore of concern; although presently these gases are present in very small quantities. The concern of this essay is my research on CO2.
Cumulative
Industrial activity (in the broadest sense) is the principal cause of the rise in the amount of CO2 gas in the atmosphere. Clearance of rain forests is the next most significant cause. CO2 levels present in the atmosphere vary as weather patterns cause fluctuations in terrestrial and ocean uptake[10]. The ocean acts as a huge sink for CO2 but is latitude dependent due to temperature and the slow rate of ocean mixing. Despite these sinks, the volume of industrially created CO2 and the human changes to land, the cumulative level is rising. Changes made by humankind to reduce emission will only be effective over time, perhaps hundreds of years. (Prentice) This is a very limited and simplified précis of this particular study. The significant point is that CO2 produced today, is likely to influence our environment for hundreds of years to come.
Climate Change
The greatest concern or anticipated impact of increased atmospheric CO2 levels is the greenhouse effect which in turn is expected to cause global warming and climate change. Water vapour, CO2 and other greenhouse gases are described in this manner due to the greenhouse effect they have. They are present within the atmosphere, absorbing or trapping infrared radiation from the sun, preventing it from being radiated back out to space and re-radiating it back to the surface of our planet. This is expected to raise the overall temperature resulting in changing weather conditions. Warm air temperatures will further increase the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere. This in turn may release yet more CO2 from the oceans into the atmosphere.
Speculation, perhaps
There is speculation that there may be two potential outcomes from climate change; a general change in the localised weather patterns, theoretically becoming warmer, and extremes in weather conditions. We have been told that melting polar icecaps may prevent the next ice-age. Melting icecaps may raise the sea level causing low-lying land areas to be inundated. These effects are the result of a general warming of the planet. Of greater concern is the knowledge that - that as climates change in specific areas, traditional food production is likely to also change. The result could be that areas currently growing wheat for example, could no longer sustain this crop. This may have a catastrophic effect, not only on the economy of the food growing area but on the populations dependent on that wheat as a food source. The economic cycles of food production could be dramatically affected across the entire planet (Pimentel). As a result we might face starvation. It is not only climatic changes that could result in these changes. Plants and animals are susceptible to increased atmospheric CO2 content. In fact CO2 becomes toxic to humans if concentrations are too high. Studies indicate that if CO2 levels increase by a factor of two, similarities to climatic changes in growing regions are likely (Taub). I have spent time thinking about aspects of this, wondering what it would be like if the air is no longer breathable without filtration or some form of processing and how this would affect us both indoors and outdoors. Dystopia is in part a state of mind but it is also where conditions are harsh or restricting. This is an idea I will spend more time with in my practice.
Climatic change will influence our weather causing extremes we would not otherwise experience. We recently saw the immobilising effect of the unprecedented snow falls in New Zealand and how they affected the economy of the areas involved. If disaster were to follow disaster, infrastructure might gradually deteriorate and fail, not to be replaced as resources are channelled into the more immediate requirements of basic survival. Insurers have already become reticent about covering property still regarded to be at risk. This does not bode well for economic stability.
Much is speculation, balanced by studies and research. It would appear that despite this, the effects are not clearly predictable. We are facing the unknown.
Reduction
The use of fossil fuels for transportation is the single largest source of CO2 emission. Less use is an unlikely option in the foreseeable future. Alternative energy sources such as electricity would be more attractive in some circumstances. However in many countries, the batteries used to power vehicles would have to be recharged from the grid – supplying power generated by fossil fuel burning power stations.
This suggests a focus on developing alternatives for coal and oil fired electrical generation and there is a lot of activity and research in these fields – solar power, wind turbines, tidal generators; and then there is nuclear fission. A metal element called Thorium, several times more plentiful than uranium, is being used in experimental nuclear power plants. It apparently has some potential as a fuel breeder and a likely place in the generation of sustainable nuclear energy. If it is possible to affordably generate electrical energy without either long term nuclear waste or use of fossil fuels, it will revolutionise world energy sources (Thorium). This is the most promising information found in terms of an alternative to electrical energy generation from fossil fuels.
Meanwhile, the generation of electricity by nuclear reactors may remain in vogue. The activity at least produces little direct CO2 emission. Storage of the waste generated is an issue as high level waste must be put away for thousands of years. It is interesting that the type of storage used for nuclear waste is also used for the storage of CO2 ie,. burial in disused mine shafts or oil wells.
I thought about the idea of atmosphere skimming – low earth orbiting space craft skim the atmosphere, sucking up CO2, freezing it into dry ice and ejecting it out into the asteroid belt. The idea of casting out or separating ourselves from our waste is certainly not new. With future technology anything may be possible even if it only exists in a sci-fi novel today.
At this place in the essay it seems appropriate to quote a renowned figure - Albert Einstein - “The significant problems we face cannot be solved at the same level of thinking we were at when we created them.” This suggests that it may not be this generation that solves the issues we are facing and possibly not the next. But it does provide hope for the future as long as the acquisition of knowledge remains important to the human race.
Designers, of everything man-made can minimise the energy represented in the materials they work with. Algae varieties can be farmed and used as a human food source or converted to a diesel-like fuel. Neither of these products sequester carbon but their production may be more energy efficient than alternatives.
Consumerism may reduce as the agreements reached by way of the Kyoto Protocol[11], result in increased costs of goods due to the inclusion of emissions trading in production. The Kyoto target of a return to 1990 emission levels appears to be a worthwhile initial focus provided reduction continues beyond the deadlines proposed. (Prentice) This assumes that the countries involved in the agreement fulfil their obligations. The most significant aspect of this agreement is that it involves key industrialised countries; they have acknowledged there is a climate change issue and that it is global. They have agreed on what action to take and aspects of this are being put into place. It represents an admittedly small step in the right direction.
Storage
One of the difficulties of handling CO2 is that at normal pressure and temperature it is a gas. CO2 is unusual as it has no liquid state unless it is highly pressurised. It solidifies at about minus 80 degrees C forming dry ice. Despite this CO2 is being captured from industrial processes and stored. Technology is focussed on screening, filtering or chemically converting emissions to other substances. CO2 gas is being pumped into worked-out mines and oil wells. Research is subsequently focussed on the absorption of the gas into surrounding ground structures. (Metz). Storage seems to be a stop-gap activity. Like the storage of nuclear waste this may cause future issues if the containment vessels deteriorate or fracture.
Sequestration
Sequestration is a word with a legal history. It describes the act of removing in this context. The challenge with CO2 is removing it from the atmosphere as permanently as possible. Trees and plants sequester atmospheric carbon in their cellular structure but release it again if they are burnt or decompose. The rationale for growing forests for lumber is that the lumber produced will lock up the carbon for a hundred years or so. Tree farming as an alternative to animal farming on marginal land is becoming a carbon credit activity in New Zealand. While a hundred years seems short term, at least this activity produces oxygen without which, life is not sustainable. Carbon is also sequestered in the shells of shellfish and suggestions have been made to increase ocean farming. Dissolved CO2 is absorbed from the ocean to form calcium carbonate in the shells. The upside of this type of farming is that it provides an alternative sustainable food source not requiring land.
Sustainability
Sustainability is an interesting concept when so much of what industry is about is the exploitation of the planet’s natural resources. Recycling of steel is a sustainable activity in terms of the raw material although the process requires a high energy input and thus CO2 output. It is interesting that there are now measures and benchmarks used internationally to gauge environmental sustainability. Metrics at least put quantifiable fact around categories such as air pollution and climate change. The premier method is the Environmental Performance Index [i](EPI) (Environmental Performance Index 2010). In the very long term, the only way we could ever act truly sustainably would be through severe population reduction and control plus some form of matter conversion, so that whatever waste we produced could be recycled as material we required. This is some form of utopian existence where we as a race would be less interested in displaying our status and more interested in a harmonious relationship with our neighbours and our environment.
Mitigation
Carbon trading may result in reduced emissions (as suggested above). It encourages industry at all levels to reduce their carbon footprint by employing emission reducing activities and technology throughout their entire production processes. There still seems something fundamentally wrong with this equation when New Zealand sells coal to China. The coal will be used to make coke for steel production or it will be used to fuel power stations. The steel or power may be used to manufacture a product that is exported to a third country. This is good for the economies of all countries but who is responsible for the CO2 that will be released when that coal was burnt? Carbon trading is an act of mitigation, at best of checking activity. A range of investment and service industries have grown around carbon credit investment, sale and purchase. Marginal farming land in New Zealand is being planted in forest, the land owners selling carbon credits for which they are paid annually.
Conclusion
This discursive exploration of steel - the material, the enabler - reinforces the fascination I find working with it. Much of the research undertaken in the course of this exploration has been seductive, continually extending my attention across an ever growing rhizomian-like landscape. Steel has enabled technological development since the industrial revolution. It is interwoven within our society so tightly that we are dependent upon it; no other material could be affordably substituted. Iron ore is plentiful, as is the coal required to make steel. Wonderful things can be done with it. Can we live with it; can we live without it? This is a dilemma that interests me as it mirrors my questioning of the use of steel in my practice. Steel links the growth of consumerism, mass production and the globalisation of the middle classes. Mass production is a concept that I am actively pursuing through work I am completing at present. Steel is used in mechanisms to directly control or enable production. It may involve automation or remote control. The hand of an interactive participant is required.
Although the production of steel emits CO2 gas, it is a small portion of that emitted compared to burning fossil fuels. Technological development would seem to be best focussed on alternative forms of energy generation such as nuclear fission. More sustainable generation is appealing despite the hardware and infrastructure requirements of turbines or solar cells unless these are scaled to a local installation. I think of an imaginary image of a massive oil tanker, weathering a storm, under full sail – and I acknowledge the contradiction in this imagery.
I feel that the Kyoto Protocol is the most significant recent event in relation to the subject of this essay. CO2 emission is a global problem that can only be solved if the global community takes responsibility, and acts as a whole. Step one is acknowledgement of a problem. Step two is agreement of intended action. Step three will be carrying that out. A global community seems a sensible outcome.
Einstein’s words suggest to me that it may be our children’s children who will be the best equipped to right the legacy we have inherited. We just need to make sure they have the time and opportunity to acquire the knowledge to achieve this. It is the concern for this that influences the direction my practice is taking. I have come to the conclusion that there is little I can do directly to change this situation but I can think about it, talk about it, make art that prompts others to think, and talk about it.
Reference
[1] The Denniston Incline is a cable railway extending X down a hill on which coal trucks...ETC – the 7th or 8th wonder of the world (REF).
[2] Black steel – hot rolled, Bright steel for machining, Stainless steel for corrosion resistance, Rusty – Corten steel, the oxide layer is self protecting
[3] Iron, cast iron has up to 2.1% carbon content, higher than steel. Fe (iron) is the element that forms the greater part of any steel alloy.
[4] Charcoal is wood that is burnt in a controlled, reduction firing in a kiln. This burns away the volatile components leaving almost pure carbon.
[5] Coke is produced from coal in a similar manner to the production of charcoal. It is almost pure carbon.
[6] Frederick Taylor was a leader in the field of scientific management theory – early 20th century – the term Taylorism is derived from his name.
[7] Boron, chromium, molybdenum for example.
[8] Iron ore is iron oxide in various forms incl. Fe2O3, Fe3O4 - magnetite, hermatite, goethite, limonite or siderite
[9] Due to greater awareness of the impact of CO2 emission and technological development in this area
[10] Levels of CO2 are absorbed by the soil and water in the oceans
[11] The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the Kyoto Protocol is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas emissions .These amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.
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